Runway 1.9

Runway 1.9 Average ratng: 7,3/10 2497 reviews

Project Runway (season 9)
No. of tasks	12
No. of contestants	20
Winner	Anya Ayoung-Chee
Country of origin	United States
No. of episodes	14
Release
Original network	Lifetime
Original release	July 28 – October 27, 2011
Additional information
Filming dates	June 2011 –
Season chronology
Next → Season 10

Runway 1-9 Muscle Bike Club
Runaway 1996
Runaway 1967
Runaway 1960
Runaway 1961
Runaway 1989

Project Runway Season 9 is the ninth season of the television show Project Runway. The season began airing on July 28, 2011 and features 20 designers who hope to become 'the next great American designer.'

Jan 09, 2019 Tonight on Lifetime their Emmy Award nominated series Project Runway All Stars airs with an all-new Wednesday, January 09, 2019, episode and we have your Project Runway All Stars recap below! On tonight’s Project Runway, All Stars season 7 episode 2 “Top of. Oct 25, 2019 CHARLOTTE, N.C. — A proposal would bring a fourth runway to Charlotte Douglas International Airport, and with it will come more flights.

May 24, 2017 My top 20 worst runway looks ever (if you dont like my opinion, tell me) ALL RIGHTS RESERVED TO LOGO, RUPAUL'S DRAG RACE, WOW PRESENTS, WORLD OF WONDER, VH-1, VIACOM, OUTtv US, OUTtv Canada, etc. FIG 2-1-9 Runway Status Light System. Takeoff Hold Lights (THL): The THL system is composed of flush mounted, in-pavement, unidirectional light fixtures in a double longitudinal row aligned either side of the runway centerline lighting. Fixtures are focused toward the. Runway Incursion Avoidance Introduction. Where in flight do you think the worst airplane accident in history happened? Many pilots would probably say in the air, but the worst accident in aviation history occurred on a runway (Tenerife Airport, 1977). Studies show that general aviation operations account for the largest percentage of runway incursions. May 05, 2017 You only turn 125 once.In celebration of Vogue’s major milestone, the editors came together to reminisce about and toast the runway shows that have mattered most to. Jan 30, 2013 An Airbus A350 is initially moving down the runway at 7.0 m/s preparing for takeoff. The pilot pulls on the throttle so that the engines give the plane a constant acceleration of 1.8 m/s2. The plane then travels a distance of 1800 m down the runway before lifting off. How long does it take from the application of the acceleration until the plane lifts off, becoming airborne?

Returning as judges were supermodel Heidi Klum; fashion designer Michael Kors; and Marie Claire fashion director, Nina Garcia. Tim Gunn returned as the workroom mentor.

In 2012, Laura Kathleen Planck, Joshua McKinley, and Anthony Ryan Auld competed in the second season of Project Runway All Stars. Laura Kathleen Planck placed 6th, Joshua McKinley placed 4th, and Anthony Ryan Auld won the competition.

In 2013, Viktor Luna competed in the third season of All Stars. He placed 5th.

In 2018, Kimberly Goldson and Joshua McKinley (in his second All Stars appearance) competed in the sixth season of All Stars, placing 9th and 7th respectively.

Anthony Ryan Auld, alongside Anya Ayoung-Chee, competed in the seventh season against worldwide winners. Anya Ayoung-Chee placed 10th while Anthony Ryan Auld placed 5th.

Contestants[edit]

Designers[edit]

Designer	Age	Hometown	Place of Residence	Place Finished
Rafael Cox	27	Alamogordo, New Mexico	Atlanta, Georgia	16th
Fallene Wells	29	Las Vegas, Nevada	Denver, Colorado	15th
Julie Tierney	35	Baton Rouge, Louisiana	Grand Junction, Colorado	14th
Cecilia Motwani	34	Cordoba, Argentina	Woodside, Queens, New York City, New York	13th (Quit)
Danielle Everine	26	Minneapolis, Minnesota	Minneapolis, Minnesota	12th
Joshua Christensen	29	Snohomish, Washington	Los Angeles, California	11th (Originally 15th)
Becky Ross	38	Calumet, Michigan	Portland, Oregon	10th
Bryce Black	26	Twin Falls, Idaho	Portland, Oregon	9th
Olivier Green	22	Columbus, Ohio	New York City, New York	8th
Anthony Ryan Auld	28	Linden, Texas	Baton Rouge, Louisiana	7th
Bert Keeter	57	Washington, D.C.	Los Angeles, California	6th
Laura Kathleen Planck	26	St. Louis, Missouri	St. Louis, Missouri	5th
Kimberly Goldson	35	Brooklyn, New York City, New York	White Plains, Maryland	4th Place
Viktor Luna	30	Guadalajara, Jalisco	New York City, New York	3rd Place
Joshua McKinley	25	Cleveland, Ohio	Queens, New York City, New York	Runner-up
Anya Ayoung-Chee	29	Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago	Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago	Winner

In the first episode, 4 designers were eliminated and 16 continued to participate in the show.^[1]

Models[edit]

Model	Place Finished
Kenzie Gallo	16th
Ashley Lacamp	15th
Tatjana Sinkevica	14th
Thais Magalhaes	13th
Michel Ann Lienhard-O'Malley	12th
Karin Agstam	11th
Alyssa Pasek	10th
Hannah Gottesman	9th
Carla Barrucci	8th
Chelsea Blackburn	7th
Kerstin Lechner	6th
Meghan Giffin	5th
Bojana Draskovic	4th
Erika Kimberly Jones	3rd
Sonia Nieklasz	Runner-up
Sveta Glebova	Winner

Model Elimination Table
Model	1	2	3¹	4	5	6	7	8¹	9¹	10	11	12	13	14
Sveta	AC	AC	AC	AC	AC	BR	BR	AC	AC	AC	AC	AC	AC	WINNER (AC)
Sonia	JM	JM	JM	JM	JM	JM	JM	JM	JM	JM	JM	JM	JM	JM
Erika	VL	VL	VL	VL	VL	VL	VL	VL	VL	VL	VL	VL	VL	VL
Bojana	KG	KG	KG	KG	KG	KG	KG	KG	KG	KG	KG	KG	KG	KG
Meghan	BR	BR	BR	BR	BR	LK	LK	LK	LK	LK	LK	LK	OUT
Kerstin	BK	BK	BK	BK	BK	AC	AC	BK	BK	BK	BK	OUT
Chelsea	AA	AA	AA	AA	AA	AA	AA	AA	AA	AA	OUT
Carla	OG	OG	OG	OG	OG	OG	OG	OG	OG	OUT
Hannah	BB	BB	BB	BB	BB	BB	BB	BB	OUT
Alyssa	CM	CM	CM	CM	JC	BK	BK	OUT
Karin	DE	DE	DE	DE	DE	JC	OUT
Michel Ann	LK	LK	LK	LK	LK	OUT
Thais	JT	JT	JT	JT	OUT
Tatjana	FW	FW	FW	OUT
Ashley	JC	JC	OUT
Kenzie	RC	OUT

The model won Project Runway Season 9.

The model wore the winning design that challenge.

The model wore the losing design that challenge.

The model was eliminated.

^1 : The models were not used in Episodes 3, 8 & 9

Designer legend

Anya Ayoung-Chee: AC
Joshua McKinley: JM
Viktor Luna: VL
Kimberly Goldson: KG
Laura Kathleen: LK
Bert Keeter: BK
Anthony Ryan Auld: AA
Olivier Green: OG
Bryce Black: BB
Becky Ross: BR
Joshua Christensen: JC
Danielle Everine: DE
Cecilia Motwani: CM
Julie Tierney: JT
Fallene Wells: FW
Rafael Cox: RC

Challenges[edit]

Designer Elimination Table
Designers	1 ¹	2	3	4	5 ²³	6	7	8	9	10 ⁴	11	12	13⁵	14	Eliminated Episode
Anya	HIGH	IN	IN	HIGH	HIGH	IN	WIN	HIGH	LOW	WIN	WIN	WIN	ADV	WINNER	14 - Finale, Part 2
Joshua M.	IN	HIGH	LOW	IN	WIN	HIGH	LOW	WIN	HIGH	LOW	HIGH	HIGH	ADV	RUNNER-UP
Viktor	IN	IN	LOW	HIGH	WIN	IN	HIGH	HIGH	WIN	HIGH	LOW	HIGH	ADV	3RD PLACE
Kimberly	IN	IN	HIGH	WIN	LOW	IN	IN	IN	LOW	IN	HIGH	LOW	ADV	4TH PLACE
Laura	IN	IN	WIN	IN	LOW	HIGH	IN	IN	IN	LOW	LOW	OUT	12 - The Finale Challenge
Bert	WIN	IN	LOW	IN	LOW	LOW	LOW	LOW	HIGH	HIGH	OUT	11 - This Is for the Birds
Anthony Ryan	HIGH	HIGH	HIGH	IN	LOW	WIN	IN	LOW	IN	OUT	10 - Sew '70s
Olivier	IN	WIN	IN	IN	HIGH	LOW	HIGH	IN	OUT	9 - Image Is Everything
Bryce	IN	LOW	LOW	IN	LOW	IN	IN	OUT	8 - What Women Want
Becky	IN	IN	HIGH	IN	HIGH	IN	OUT	7 - Can't We All Just Get Along?
Joshua C.	LOW	OUT	HIGH	OUT	2 - My Pet Project/6 - The Art of the Matter
Danielle	IN	IN	HIGH	LOW	OUT	5 - Off the Track
Cecilia	IN	IN	HIGH	LOW	WD	5 - Off the Track
Julie	LOW	IN	LOW	OUT	4 - All About Nina
Fallene	IN	LOW	OUT	3 - Go Big or Go Home
Rafael	OUT	1 - Come As You Are

^1 : In episode 1, Amanda, David, Gunnar, and Serena were the 4 designers who were eliminated before the final 16 were officially participants of the show.

^2 : After Cecilia withdrew from the competition in episode 5, Olivier and Viktor were allowed to pick any previously eliminated contestant to come back into the competition to join their team. They chose Joshua C.

^3 : In episode 5, although the judges categorized all the clothes into ones they liked and didn't like, their deliberation revealed the ones they liked the most (Joshua M., Olivier, Viktor) and the ones they liked the least (Anthony, Bryce, Danielle). In addition, although Joshua M. was chosen as a winner, the actual winning design from his team was the dress designed and sewn by Anya and Becky, respectively.

^4 : In episode 10, the prize was that the winning designer's garment would be produced and sold on Piperlime. After Anya was declared the winner, it was announced that Bert's garment will also be produced and sold on the site.

^5 : All four contestants went on to compete at Fashion Week, for the first time since season 3.

The designer won the Project Runway Season 9.

The designer won the challenge.

The designer was in the top two, or the first announced into the top 3, but did not win.

The designer had one of the highest scores for that challenge, but did not win.

The designer had one of the lowest scores for that challenge, but was not eliminated.

The designer was in the bottom two, but was not eliminated.

The designer lost and was out of the competition.

The designer was not in the Top 16 and was out of the competition.

The designer withdrew from the competition.

Episodes[edit]

Episode 1: Come As You Are[edit]

Original Airdate: July 28, 2011

As the season begins and the designers arrive in New York, they are informed that they are not yet part of season 9. For the final stage of their casting session, the 20 designers must go in front of Heidi, Michael, Nina and Tim to make a case as to why they deserve one of the 16 coveted spots this season.^[2]

ELIMINATED: Amanda, David, Gunnar & Serena

The next day, the 16 remaining designers are awoken by Tim in the early morning hours and given their first challenge: transform the pajamas they are wearing and one bed sheet into an outfit of their choice. Dyes, trim, and closures are provided.

Guest Judge:Christina Ricci

WINNER: Bert

ELIMINATED: Rafael

Amanda has returned for season 14.
Gunnar has returned for season 10.

Episode 2: My Pet Project[edit]

Original Airdate: August 4, 2011

The designers must create an outfit using only materials found in a pet supply store.

Guest Judge: Stacey Bendet ^[3]

WINNER: Olivier

ELIMINATED: Joshua C.

Episode 3: Go Big or Go Home[edit]

Original Airdate: August 11, 2011

The designers work on a challenge revolving around a theme called 'Larger than Life'. In teams of two with a budget of $500 and one day to work, they create outfits for professional stilt walkers. The runway show is at Battery Park, making it the first runway show to be held outside.

Pairs: Anthony Ryan & Laura, Bryce & Fallene, Danielle & Cecilia, Joshua M. & Julie, Viktor & Bert, Anya & Olivier, and Kimberly & Becky

Team	Result
Anthony Ryan/Laura	High/Win
Danielle/Cecilia	High/High
Kimberly/Becky	High/High
Anya/Olivier	In/In
Joshua M/Julie	Low/Low
Viktor/Bert	Low/Low
Bryce/Fallene	Low/Out

Guest Judge:Kim Kardashian

WINNER: Laura

ELIMINATED: Fallene

Episode 4: All About Nina[edit]

Original Airdate: August 18, 2011

The designers create a look for judge Nina Garcia that should be wearable by Garcia during work and for an industry event at night. The winning design will be featured in a Marie Claire editorial and on a billboard atop a New York City taxicab.

Guest Judge:Kerry Washington, Joanna Coles (Editor in Chief of Marie Claire)

WINNER: Kimberly

ELIMINATED: Julie

Episode 5: Off the Track[edit]

Original Airdate: August 25, 2011

The designers meet at the New Balance Track and Field Center in New York City and are challenged to create apparel to wear with a new Heidi Klum for New Balance lifestyle sneaker from Klum's collection. The designers work in teams of three, with team leaders chosen by holding a foot race at the Track and Field Center. The winning looks will be sold as part of Klum's collection exclusively on Amazon.com.^[4]

Team Leader	Team Members
Anthony Ryan	Laura, Bert
Joshua M.	Anya, Becky
Viktor	Olivier, Josh C.
Bryce	Kimberly, Danielle

Guest Judge:Erin Wasson

WINNERS: Joshua M. and Viktor

WITHDREW: Cecilia

ELIMINATED: Danielle

Cecilia withdrew from the competition and was replaced by Josh C.

Episode 6: The Art of the Matter[edit]

Original Airdate: September 1, 2011

The designers each work together with an art student to create a painting, and then must design an avant-garde look that reflects their art work. They have a budget of $300 and two days to complete their look.

Guest Judge:Kenneth Cole, Zanna Roberts Rassi (in for Nina Garcia)

WINNER: Anthony Ryan

ELIMINATED: Joshua C.

Episode 7: Can't We Just All Get Along?[edit]

Original Airdate: September 8, 2011

The designers plug into computer technology to help create signature fabric designs in a challenge that forces them into working in two teams of five. Wielding video cameras, they also venture out into the city to capture the stories behind their inspirations.

Team CHAOS	Team Nuts And Bolts
Anthony Ryan, Anya, Viktor, Olivier, Bryce	Josh M., Laura, Kimberly, Becky, Bert

Guest Judge:Rachel Roy, Rose Byrne

WINNER: Anya

ELIMINATED: Becky

Episode 8: What Women Want[edit]

Original Airdate: September 15, 2011

The contestants are introduced to nine men on the runway and, in a seamless twist, discover they must design for the men's significant others. Actress Malin Akerman is the guest judge.

Guest Judge:Malin Akerman

WINNER: Joshua M.

ELIMINATED: Bryce

Episode 9: Image is Everything[edit]

Original Airdate: September 22, 2011

The outfitters are treated to a special performance from their new client, the up-and-coming band The Sheepdogs. Broken into two teams of four, the designers are charged with creating a look that will establish them as image-makers.

Guest Judge:Adam Lambert

WINNER: Viktor

ELIMINATED: Olivier

Episode 10: Sew 70s[edit]

Original Airdate: September 29, 2011

The remaining designers do the time warp when fashions from the 1970s inspire their creations.

Guest Judge:Olivia Palermo

WINNER: Anya

ELIMINATED: Anthony Ryan

Episode 11: This is for the Birds[edit]

Original Airdate: October 6, 2011

Birds serve as the inspiration for the looks in this challenge. Designers are paired up, with each pair assigned a bird. They then learn that they are not competing together, but rather head-to-head. Kimberly and Viktor design head-to-head with a cockatoo as their inspiration, Anya and Laura with a raven, and Bert and Joshua with an Amazon parrot.

Guest Judge:Francisco Costa

WINNER: Anya

ELIMINATED: Bert

Episode 12: The Finale Challenge[edit]

Original Airdate: October 13, 2011

The remaining designers had to create 3 looks from inspirations on Governor's Island. They were assisted by the five most recently eliminated contestants.

Guest Judge:Zoe Saldana

ADVANCED: Anya, Viktor, Joshua M., Kimberly

ELIMINATED: Laura

Episode 13: The Finale, Part 1[edit]

Original Airdate: October 20, 2011

The final four designers are critiqued on their collections and compete, for the last time, to show at Fashion Week. In a shock elimination, it is revealed that all of the four designers will be advancing to Fashion Week instead of the usual three.

Guest Judge: None

ADVANCED TO FASHION WEEK: Joshua M., Viktor, Kimberly, Anya

Episode 14: The Finale, Part 2[edit]

Original Airdate: October 27, 2011

The four finalists work the last part of preparation for Fashion Week, including model casting and hair and makeup counseling. Each shows their collection pieces before the winner of Project Runway Season 9 is announced.

Guest Judge:L'Wren Scott

WINNER: Anya

ELIMINATED: Joshua M., Viktor, Kimberly

Trivia[edit]

Anya Ayoung-Chee won the Miss Trinidad and Tobago Universe in 2008 and represented her country in the Miss Universe pageant the same year but she failed to place in the Top 15 semifinalists.

References[edit]

^http://www.mylifetime.com/shows/project-runway/blogs/project-runway-blog/season-9-premieres-july-28-20-designers-naked-heidi-photo
^[1].
^Blogging Project Runway Season 9, Episode 2.
^[2].

External links[edit]

Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project_Runway_(season_9)&oldid=906337012'

Where in flight do you think the worst airplane accident in history happened? Many pilots would probably say in the air, but the worst accident in aviation history occurred on a runway (Tenerife Airport, 1977).

Studies show that general aviation operations account for the largest percentage of runway incursions. The potential for runway incidents and accidents can be reduced through adequate planning, coordination, and communication.

After this lesson, the student will be able to describe:

Types of runway incursions.
How to identify hold-short lines and their meaning.
Procedures for keeping workload and distractions to a minimum during ground operations.
ATC communications related to runway entry/crossing authorizations.
How to plan and brief the taxi route, including the location of hot spots.
Low-visibility taxi operations [IFR].

Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25):
Appendix 1, Runway Incursion Avoidance
AC 91-73: Single Pilot, Flight School Procedures During Taxi Operations
AC 120-57: Low Visibility Operations Surface Movement Guidance and Control System
AC 120-74: Flightcrew Procedures During Taxi Operations
SAFO 11004: Runway Incursion Prevention Actions
AOPA Course: Runway Safety
AOPA Video: Runway Safety – Critical Difference

Runway Incursions

Reference: AC 91-73

The FAA formally defines a runway incursion as “any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.”

A surface incident is similar to a runway incursion but occurs on a designated movement area (excluding runway incursions) and affects or could affect the safety of flight.

Types of Runway Incursions

Pilot Deviations: Crossing a runway hold marking without a clearance or taking off or landing without a clearance.

Operational Incidents: Clearing an aircraft onto a runway while another aircraft is landing on the same runway.

Vehicle Deviations: Crossing a runway hold marking without ATC clearance.

Runway Incursion Severity

D	C	B	A	Accident
Incident that meets the definition of runway incursion such as incorrect presence of a single vehicle/person/aircraft on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take-off of aircraft but with no immediate safety consequences.	An incident characterized by ample time and/or distance to avoid a collision.	An incident in which separation decreases and there is a significant potential for collision, which may result in a time critical corrective/ evasive response to avoid a collision.	A serious incident in which a collision was narrowly avoided.	An incursion that resulted in a collision.

Runway Incursion Statistics

In the U.S., an average of three runway incursions occurs daily. According to FAA data, approximately 65% of all runway incursions are caused by pilots, of which 75% are caused by GA pilots.

Detailed investigations of runway incursions have identified three major contributing factors:

Failure to comply with ATC instructions
Lack of airport familiarity
Nonconformance with standard operating procedures
Distractions during taxi operations

Types of Errors that Can Lead to Deviations

Inadvertent pilot deviations can result from a variety of error types, including decision errors, skill-based errors, and perceptual errors.

Decision Errors (Cognitive)

Decision errors are “honest mistakes” that occur when one does not have the appropriate knowledge or made a poor choice. An action is carried out as intended but is inadequate for the situation at hand.

Examples:

Inadequate weather evaluation
Improper refueling decisions

Skill-Based Errors (Motor Control)

Skill-based errors are “stick-and-rudder” mistakes that occur without significant conscious thought. A person intends to carry out an action, carries it out incorrectly, and the desired goal is not achieved.

Examples:

Airspeed or altitude not maintained
Inadequate aircraft control

Perceptual Errors (Sensory)

Perceptual errors are due to incorrect responses to illusions. These can occur when sensory input is degraded at night or in other situations causing reduced visual acuity.

Examples:

Misjudged distances
Spatial disorientation/vertigo

Best Practices for Avoiding Pilot Deviations

Plan Each Flight: A pilot may have flown the route many times before, but conditions can change rapidly, like a pop-up temporary flight restriction (TFR).

Talk and Squawk: Proper communication with ATC has its benefits. Flight following often makes the controller’s job easier because they can better integrate VFR and IFR traffic. Controllers also have the latest local TFR information.

Give Yourself Some Room: GPS is usually more precise than radar. Using a GPS to fly along an airspace boundary could result in a pilot deviation because the ATC radar may show it within the restricted airspace. The pilot may be able to prove that he or she was not at fault but would need to produce a track from the navigation system.

Point and Acknowledge: This occupational safety method is used to avoid mistakes by pointing at important indicators and calling out the status. Pointing at and calling out instrument indications and outside references can help a pilot maintain focus and attention.

Stay Alert During Ground Operations: Pilot deviations can and do occur on the ground. Many airborne pilot deviation avoidance strategies and tactics work on the ground as well.

The best way to avoid a runway incursion is to make sure you understand (1) where you are at, (2) what you have been cleared to do, and (3) where you are going.

Runway Markings

Reference: AIM 2-3-3

Runway designation markings are numbers and letters that identify a runway. The number is determined from the approach direction. It is based on the magnetic heading of the runway centerline. The letters differentiate between left (L), right (R), or center (C) parallel runways, as applicable.

Runway centerline markings identify the center of the runway and provide alignment guidance to aircraft during takeoff and landing. The stripes are 120′ in length with 80′ gaps.

Runway aiming point markings serve as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft. These two rectangular markings consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of the runway centerline and approximately 1,000′ from the landing threshold. The markings are 100′ to 150′ in length depending on the runway length.

Runway touchdown zone markers identify the touchdown zone for landing operations. These markings provide distance information in 500′ increments. These markings consist of groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway centerline.

Runway side stripe markings consist of continuous white stripes located on each side of the runway. These markings provide a visual contrast between runway pavement and the ground.

Runway shoulder markings consist of continuous yellow stripes that are used when needed to identify pavement next to the runway that is not intended for use by aircraft.

Runway threshold markings identify the beginning of the runway that is available for landing. Runway threshold markings come in two configurations. These markings have eight stripes of uniform dimensions, or the number of stripes is related to the runway width. Visual runways, those without an instrument approach, do not have threshold markings.

Number of stripes when related to the runway width:

60′ Wide	75′ Wide	100′ Wide	150′ Wide	200′ Wide
4 Stripes	6 Stripes	8 Stripes	12 Stripes	16 Stripes

Demarcation bars delineate displaced runway thresholds from unusable pavement such as blast pads, stopways, or taxiways that precede the threshold. A demarcation bar is yellow since it is not located on the runway.

Chevrons are yellow markings aligned with the runway that show pavement areas that are unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing.

Runway threshold bars delineate the beginning of runways when a threshold has been relocated or displaced.

Taxiway Markings

Reference: AIM 2-3-4

Normal taxiway centerline markings are a single continuous yellow line. Ideally, the aircraft should be kept centered over this line during taxi. However, being centered on the taxiway centerline does not guarantee wingtip clearance with other aircraft or other objects.

Enhanced taxiway centerline markings are used at larger airports to warn pilots that they are approaching a runway holding position marking. These markings consist of two parallel, yellow-dashed lines located on either side of the normal taxiway centerline beginning approximately 150′ before a runway holding position marking.

Taxiway edge markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway, primarily when the taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. These markings typically consist of continuous double yellow lines. Dashed lines are used when the adjoining pavement is intended to be used by aircraft (e.g., a ramp).

Taxiway shoulder markings are yellow stripes that are used where conditions exist such as taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which side of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft. A taxiway shoulder is not intended for use by aircraft.

Surface painted taxiway direction signs are provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway direction signs at intersections, or when necessary to supplement such signs. These markings have a yellow background with a black inscription.

Surface painted location signs are located on the right side of the centerline assist the pilot in confirming the taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These markings have a black background with a yellow inscription.

Geographic position markings are located at points along low visibility taxi routes to identify the location of taxiing aircraft during low visibility operations. These markings are comprised of an outer white or black ring with a pink circle in the middle. Either a number or a number and letter is positioned in the center of the pink circle.

Holding Position Markings

Reference: AIM 2-3-5

Runway holding position markings indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway. These markings consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, extending across the width of the taxiway or runway. The solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold.

Note: If a marking pattern consists of two or more lines, some of which are solid and some of which are dashed, it is permissible to cross from the dashed side to the solid side.

Locations where runway holding position markings are encountered:

Runway holding position markings on taxiways identify locations where an aircraft is supposed to stop when it does not have clearance to proceed onto the runway. Generally, runway holding position markings also identify the boundary of the runway safety area for aircraft exiting the runway.

Runway holding position markings on runways are installed only if the runway is used by ATC for “land, hold short” operations or taxiing operations. These markings have operational significance only for those two types of operations. A sign with a white inscription on a red background is installed adjacent to these holding position markings.

Runway holding position markings on taxiways located in runway approach areas are used at some airports where it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway located in the approach or departure area of a runway so that the aircraft does not interfere with the operations on that runway. ATC notifies pilots when to hold short of a runway approach or departure area.

Example Instructions: “Hold short of Runway 32 approach area.”

Holding position markings for instrument landing system (ILS) critical areas consist of two solid yellow lines (horizontal) connected by pairs of solid lines (vertical) extending across the width of the taxiway. ATC notifies pilots when to hold short of an ILS critical area.

Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single, yellow dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway.

Surface painted holding position signs have a red background with a white inscription and supplement the signs located at holding positions. These type of markings are normally used where the width of the holding position on the taxiway is greater than 200′. It is located to the left side of the taxiway centerline on the holding side and prior to the holding position marking.

Other Airport Markings

Reference: AIM 2-3-6

Vehicle roadway markings are used when necessary to define a pathway for vehicle operations on or crossing areas that are also intended for aircraft. Zipper markings delineate the edges of the vehicle roadway. In lieu of the dashed lines, solid white lines may be used.

VOR checkpoint markings allow the pilot to check aircraft instruments with NAVAID signals. It consists of a painted circle with an arrow in the middle that is aligned in the direction of the checkpoint azimuth.

Nonmovement area boundary markings delineate the movement area, an area controlled by ATC. These markings consist of two yellow lines, one solid and one dashed. The solid line is located on the nonmovement area side (not under ATC control). The dashed yellow line is located on the movement area side (ATC controlled).

Permanently closed runways and taxiways have their lighting circuits disconnected, and the runway threshold, runway designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated. Yellow crosses are painted on each end of the runway and at 1,000-foot intervals.

Temporarily closed runways and taxiways can be identified by yellow crosses. A cross may be placed on each runway end in lieu of permanent markings.

Airport Signs

Reference: AIM 2-3-7

Mandatory instruction signs have a red background with a white inscription.

Typical applications are:

Runway holding position signs
Runway approach area holding position signs
ILS critical area holding position signs
No entry signs

Location signs are black with yellow inscription and a yellow border and do not have arrows.

Typical applications are:

Taxiway location signs
Runway location signs
Runway boundary signs
ILS critical area boundary signs

Direction signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. Each designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating the direction of the turn.

Runway 1-9 Muscle Bike Club

Destination signs also have a yellow background with a black inscription indicating a destination on the airport. These signs always have an arrow showing the direction to a destination. Destinations commonly shown are runways, terminals, cargo areas, and FBOs.

Information signs have a yellow background with black inscription. These signs are used to provide the pilot with information on such things as radio frequencies and noise abatement procedures.

Runway distance remaining signs have a black background with a white numeral inscription and may be installed along one or both sides of the runway. The number on the signs indicates the distance, in thousands of feet, of landing runway remaining.

Runway Lighting

References: AIM 2-1-3, AIM 2-1-4, AIM 2-1-5

Runway end identifier lights (REIL) are flashing lights that provide rapid and positive identification of the end of a runway. The system consists of two synchronized flashing lights, uni-directional or omni-directional, one on each side of the runway landing threshold.

Runway edge lights are used to outline the edges of runways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These lights are white, except on instrument runways yellow replaces white on the last 2,000′ or half the runway length, whichever is less, to form a caution zone for landings.

Runway edge light systems are classified according to the intensity or brightness they are capable of producing: high-intensity runway lights (HIRL), medium-intensity runway lights (MIRL), and low-intensity runway lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL systems have variable intensity controls, whereas the LIRL’s normally have one intensity setting.

Runway threshold lights mark the ends of the runway emit red light toward the runway to indicate the end of runway to a departing aircraft and emit green outward from the runway end to indicate the threshold to landing aircraft.

Runway centerline light systems (RCLS) are installed on some precision approach runways to facilitate landing under adverse visibility conditions. These lights are located along the runway centerline and are spaced at 50-foot intervals. When viewed from the landing threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until the last 3,000′ of the runway. The white lights begin to alternate with red for the next 2,000′, and for the last 1,000′ of the runway, all centerline lights are red.

Touchdown zone lights (TDZL) are installed on some precision approach runways to indicate the touchdown zone when landing under adverse visibility conditions. These lights consist of two rows of transverse light bars disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline. The system consists of steady-burning white lights that start 100′ beyond the landing threshold and extend to 3,000′ beyond the landing threshold or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less.

Taxiway centerline lead-off lights provide visual guidance to pilots exiting the runway. These lights alternate green and yellow from the runway centerline to the runway holding position or the ILS critical area, as appropriate.

Taxiway centerline lead-on lights provide visual guidance to pilots entering the runway and to warn them that they are within the runway environment or ILS critical area. These lights alternate green and yellow. The fixtures are bidirectional (i.e., one side emits light for the lead-on function while the other side emits light for the lead-off function).

Land and hold short lights are used to indicate the hold short point on certain runways that are approved for land and hold short operations (LAHSO). Land and hold short lights consist of a row of pulsing white lights installed across the runway at the hold short point. Where installed, the lights will be on anytime LAHSO is in effect. These lights will be off when LAHSO is not in effect.

Taxiway Lighting

Reference: AIM 2-1-11

Taxiway edge lights outline the edges of taxiways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These fixtures are steady burning and emit blue light.

Taxiway centerline lights are located along the taxiway centerline to facilitate ground traffic under low visibility conditions. These lights are steady burning and emit green light.

Clearance bar lights consist of three, yellow in-pavement lights. These lights are installed at some taxiway holding positions to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in low visibility conditions and periods of darkness.

Runway guard lights are installed at taxiways that provide access to an active runway and may be used in all weather conditions. These lights consist of elevated or in-pavement, alternately flashing yellow lights that identify the location of a runway holding position marking. Elevated guard lights are sometimes referred to as “wig-wag” lights because they blink on and off in an alternating fashion.

Stop bar lights are used to confirm the ATC clearance to enter or cross the active runway in low visibility conditions. These lights consist of a row of red, unidirectional, elevated and in-pavement lights placed at the runway holding position (runway entrance or ILS critical area). These lights may be operated automatically or controlled by ATC. Following an ATC clearance to proceed, the stop bar is turned off, and the taxiway centerline lead-on lights are turned on.

Caution: Pilots should never cross a red illuminated stop bar, even if an ATC clearance has been received.

Hot Spots

Reference: Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide, Chart Supplements

A hot spot is a location on an airport movement area with a history or potential risk of collision or runway incursion, and where heightened attention by pilots and drivers is necessary. Hot spots are typically located at confusing taxiway or runway intersections.

Hot spots are depicted on airport diagrams as open circles designated by “HS” and a number (e.g., HS 1 or HS 2). They are also described in Chart Supplement publications under the “Hots Spots” heading. Hot spots remain charted until the increased risk has been reduced or eliminated.

Airport Surface Detection Equipment

Reference: AIM 4-5-5

Airport surface detection equipment detects aircraft, vehicles, and other objects on the surface of an airport and presents the information as images to ground and tower controllers. The data can also be provided to an automated Runway Status Lights system.

Edit ready 2 5 20. Types of systems:

ASDE-3: Surface Movement Radar (non ADS-B)
ASDE-X: Airport Surface Detection Equipment-Model X (radar and ADS-B)
ASSC: Airport Surface Surveillance Capability (radar and ADS-B)

Data for these systems can come from:

Surface movement radar
Sensors located around the airport
Aircraft transponders
ADS-B sensors

Runway Status Light System

References: AIM 2-1-6, AIM 2-1-7, AC 150/5340-30

The Runway Status Lights (RWSL) system is a fully automated, advisory system designed to reduce runway incursions. It processes information from surveillance systems, such as ASDE-X, and alerts pilots of potential conflict by illuminating the appropriate lighting.

The RWSL system provides a reinforcement of controller guidance. It does not substitute for a verbal ATC clearance. If ATC gives a clearance and the lights remain illuminated, pilots should not proceed, but advise ATC that they are holding for red lights.

When operating at airports with RWSL, pilots must operate with the transponder and ADS-B “On” until arriving at or leaving the parking area.

Components

Runway Entrance Lights (REL) are in-pavement, red lights located along the taxiway centerline. These lights are focused toward the pilot at the hold line. When activated, the lights indicate that there is high-speed traffic on the runway, or there is an aircraft on final approach within the activation area.

Takeoff Hold Lights (THL) consist of a double-row of in-pavement, red lights aligned on either side of the runway centerline lighting. These lights are focused toward the “line up and wait” point. THLs will illuminate for an aircraft in position for departure or departing when there is another aircraft or vehicle on the runway or about to enter the runway. Once that aircraft or vehicle exits the runway, the THLs extinguish.

Runway Intersection Lights (RIL) have the appearance of THL but are located at runway intersections. These lights illuminate when there is a conflict with traffic operating on an intersecting runway. Pilots who observe the red lights should operate according to their best judgment.

The Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS) is communicated by flashing of the PAPI lights to indicate to a pilot on an approach that the runway is occupied and that it may be unsafe to land. The pilot must contact ATC for resolution by 300′ AGL. If the PAPI continues to flash, the pilot must execute an immediate go-around and contact ATC at the earliest possible opportunity.

Communications at Airports Without an Operating Control Tower

References: AIM 4-1-9, AC 90-66

When approaching or departing an airport without an operating control tower, pilots should:

Transmit and receive on the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF).
Limit communications on the CTAF to safety-essential information.
Receive weather information from an automated weather station, if available.
Obtain airport and traffic information by communicating with an FSS or a UNICOM, if available.
Use the correct airport name when communicating their position, intentions, or exchanging traffic information.

Say the correct airport name at the beginning and end of each self-announce transmission.
Be aware that airports without operating control towers generally do not require the use of two-way radios (i.e., “NORDO” aircraft).

Pilots should avoid:

Using the words “to” and “for” whenever possible to help avoid misunderstandings.
Using the phrase “any traffic in the area, please advise.” Any traffic that is present that is capable of radio communications should reply without being prompted to do so.

Common Traffic Advisory Frequency

A common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF) is a designated frequency for carrying out airport advisory practices while operating at an airport without an operating control tower. The CTAF is only to be used for collision avoidance and airport advisories.

The CTAF is normally an Aeronautical Advisory Station (UNICOM), MULTICOM, or FSS frequency.

UNICOM is a nongovernment air/ground radio communication station which provides airport information at public use airports. These usually are staffed by FBO employees. These operators may provide pilots with weather information, wind direction, the recommended runway, or other necessary information, but they are not required to communicate with pilots.

MULTICOM is a service used for essential communications in the conduct of activities performed by private aircraft.

CTAF Communications

“Self-announce” is a procedure whereby pilots broadcast their aircraft call sign, position, altitude, and intended flight activity or ground operation on the designated CTAF.

Example: “Springfield traffic, [call sign] 10 miles to the northeast, inbound for landing runway 22, Springfield.”

Summary of Communication Procedures

Facility at Airport	Frequency Use	Outbound Communications	Inbound Communications
UNICOM (No Tower or FSS)	Communicate with UNICOM station on published CTAF.	Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure.	10 miles out. Entering downwind, base, and final. Leaving the runway.
No Tower, FSS, or UNICOM	Self-announce on MULTICOM frequency 122.9.	Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure.	10 miles out. Entering downwind, base, and final. Leaving the runway.
No Tower in operation, FSS open	Communicate with FSS on CTAF.	Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure.	10 miles out. Entering downwind, base, and final. Leaving the runway.
FSS Closed (No Tower)	Self-announce on CTAF.	Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure.	10 miles out. Entering downwind, base, and final. Leaving the runway.
Tower or FSS not in operation	Self-announce on CTAF.	Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure.	10 miles out. Entering downwind, base, and final. Leaving the runway.
Designated CTAF Area (Alaska Only)	Self-announce on CTAF.	Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure until leaving the designated area.	When entering designated CTAF area.

Note: Some airports have part-time control towers. The control tower frequency usually becomes the CTAF when the tower is closed.

Communications at Airports With an Operating Control Tower

Reference: AIM 4-3-2

Ground Control

Pilots of departing aircraft must communicate with ground control to receive taxi instructions before entering the movement area, an area controlled by ATC. Unless otherwise advised, pilots should remain on the ground control frequency during taxiing and run-up, then change to the tower frequency when ready to request the takeoff clearance.

Pilots of landing aircraft should not change from the tower frequency to the ground control frequency until directed to do so by the controller.

Tower Control

When operating at an airport with a control tower, pilots are required to maintain two-way radio contact with the tower unless the tower authorizes otherwise.

Pilots of landing aircraft should make the initial callup about 10–15 miles from the airport and outside of the airspace controlled by the tower.

Pilots of departing aircraft do not need to request permission to leave the tower frequency once outside of Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas.

Best Practices for Communications

Reference: AIM 4-2

Think before keying the transmitter.
Position the microphone very close to the lips.
Use standard phraseology at all times.
Check the volume control and squelch settings to ensure proper reception.
Listen before transmitting to avoid interrupting or blocking other communications.
Before beginning a lengthy communication with ATC, initial contact should be established.

While communicating with ATC, focus on what the controller is saying and do not perform any non-essential tasks.
Avoid using “Roger” or “Wilco” when reading back an ATC clearance or instruction.
Monitor all radio communications to establish a “mental picture” of airport activity.
Use an additional radio, if equipped, to monitor guard frequency as a backup to a stuck microphone or lost communications.

Be aware of the need for complete understanding of accents, terminology, and ICAO procedures while operating at foreign airports.

Recommended Usage of Exterior Lighting

References: 14 CFR 91.209, AIM 4-3-23, AC 91-73

Engines Running: Beacon ON
Sunset to Sunrise: Position lights ON
Taxi (While Moving): Taxi light ON
Taxi (When Stopped or Yielding): Taxi light OFF
Crossing a Runway: All exterior lighting ON
Line Up and Wait: Landing light OFF; All other exterior lighting ON
Takeoff and Landing: All exterior lighting ON
Climb and Descent: All exterior lighting ON

Note: Pilots should consider the effects that illuminating the strobe lights and forward-facing lights will have on the vision of other pilots or ground personnel. These lights should not be illuminated during taxi if they will adversely affect safety.

Operation “Lights On”

The FAA has a voluntary pilot safety program, Operation “Lights On”, to enhance the see-and-avoid concept. Pilots are encouraged to turn landing lights ON when operating below 10,000′, day or night, especially when operating within 10 miles of any airport, or in conditions of reduced visibility.

Situational Awareness

Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four fundamental risk elements (pilot, aircraft, environment, and type of operation) that affect safety before, during, and after the flight.

To maintain situational awareness, all of the skills involved in aeronautical decision-making (ADM) are used. When situationally aware, the pilot has an overview of the total operation and is not fixated on one perceived significant factor.

Situational Awareness = Experience + Analysis

Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness

Fatigue, stress, or work overload can cause the pilot to fixate on a single perceived important item rather than maintaining an overall awareness of the flight situation. A contributing factor in many accidents is a distraction, which diverts the pilot’s attention from monitoring the instruments or visual scanning.

Task Management

Effective task management ensures that essential operations are accomplished by planning, prioritizing, and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload. Like any other skill, pilots must learn to perform several tasks at once, deal with distractions and interruptions, and overcome problems with fixation and inattention.

Multitasking

Multitasking is the simultaneous execution of two or more tasks. It involves two different abilities: attention switching and simultaneous performance.

Attention switching is the continuous switching of attention back and forth between two or more tasks. For many flying tasks, attention switching is the only way to accomplish multitasking. For example, attention must be continuously switched between reading a checklist and inspecting the items.

Simultaneous performance, or performing several tasks at once, is possible when skills developed to the point of being automatic. For example, an experienced instrument pilot can scan the instruments and responding to minor attitude deviations while communicating with ATC.

Errors in Task Management

Task saturation occurs whenever work requirements exceed the worker’s capabilities. When a pilot becomes task saturated, there is no awareness of inputs from various sources. Decisions may be made on incomplete information and the possibility of error increases.

Distractions occur when an unexpected event causes attention to be momentarily diverted. Distractions while changing aircraft configuration or trim, maneuvering to avoid other traffic, or clearing obstacles during takeoff are potentially hazardous. Pilots must learn to decide whether a distraction warrants further attention or action on their part.

Interruptions occur when a pilot voluntarily suspends performance of one task to complete a different one. A typical example of an interruption is one that occurs while following the steps in a checklist. The pilot puts down the checklist, deals with the interruption, and then returns to the procedure, but erroneously picks up at a later point in the procedure and omits one or more steps.

Fixation occurs when a pilot becomes absorbed in performing one task to the exclusion of other tasks. Beginning instrument pilots characteristically fixate on particular instruments, attempting to control one aspect of their performance while other aspects deteriorate. Fixation on a task is often a sign that the task has not received enough practice in isolation.

Inattention occurs when a pilot fails to pay attention to a task that is important. Inattention is sometimes a natural by-product of fixation. Pilots fixate on one task and become too busy to attend to other tasks. Inattention also happens when pilots become bored or think that a task does not deserve their attention.

Runaway 1996

Complacency is overconfidence that results from repeated experience on a specific activity. It is an insidious and hard-to-identify attitude. Automation can induce overconfidence. The pilot assumes the autopilot is doing its job and does not crosscheck the instruments frequently.

Sterile Cockpit Rule

Reference: 14 CFR 121.542

Commonly known as the sterile cockpit rule, air carrier pilots are required to refrain from nonessential activities during critical phases of flight. As defined in the regulation, critical phases of flight are all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff, and landing, and all other flight operations below 10,000′ except cruise flight. Nonessential activities include such activities as eating, reading a newspaper, or chatting.

While the regulation grew out of accidents in the airline industry, it holds true for the entire aviation community. Pilots can improve flight safety significantly by reducing distractions during critical phases of flight.

Chart Supplements

Chart Supplement publications, formerly called the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD), are issued by the FAA for various geographical regions. They can be obtained digitally from the FAA’s website or ordered in a paper book format.

Runaway 1967

Chart Supplement publications contain information on airports, communications, navigation aids, instrument landing systems, VOR receiver checkpoints, preferred routes, FSS telephone numbers, Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) frequencies, part-time surface areas, and various other pertinent special notices essential to air navigation.

Link: https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/dafd/

Automatic Terminal Information Service

References: AC 00-45, FAA Order JO 7110.65

An Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a continuous broadcast or recorded information in selected terminal areas. Its purpose is to reduce controller workload and to relieve frequency congestion by automating the repetitive transmission of terminal area weather information and advisories.

Components of an ATIS broadcast:

Airport name
Phonetic letter code (used sequentially beginning with “Alpha” and ending with”Zulu)
Weather information (e.g., wind speed and direction, sky condition, temperature, and altimeter)
Instrument approach and runway in use
Taxiway closures which affect the entrance or exit of active runways
Runway Condition Codes (RwyCC), if applicable
Low-level wind shear and microburst advisories, if applicable

Any other advisories and optional information

Example ATIS Broadcast from the Boston Logan Airport:
Boston Tower Information Delta. 1140 Zulu. Wind 250 at 10. Visibility 10. Ceiling 4,500 broken. Temperature three four. Dew point 28. Altimeter 30.00. ILS-DME Runway 27 Approach in use. Departing Runway 22R. All aircraft must read back hold short instructions. Advise on initial contact you have Delta.

Taxi Instructions

References: AIM 4-3-18, AIM 5-2-5, AC 91-73

When assigned a departure runway, ATC will first specify the runway, issue taxi instructions, and state any hold short instructions or runway crossing clearances if the taxi route will cross a runway. To preclude misunderstandings in radio communications, ATC never uses the word “cleared” in conjunction with taxi instructions.

Movement Versus Nonmovement Areas

A movement area is the runways, taxiways, and other areas of an airport that are used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing. At a towered airport, the movement area is controlled by ATC. Pilots must receive a clearance before taxiing on a movement area. Nonmovement areas include ramps and parking areas and are not controlled by ATC.

Required Readbacks

Pilots must always read back:

The runway assignment.
Any clearance to taxi onto or cross a specific runway.
Any instruction to hold short of a specific runway or line up and wait.

The readback for a hold short instruction should include the words “hold short,” the runway or taxiway designator, and the aircraft’s call sign.

Progressive Taxi

If the pilot is unfamiliar with the airport or unsure of a taxi route, a “progressive taxi” should be requested. Progressive taxi requires ATC to provide step-by-step taxi instructions.

Hold Short Instructions

When ATC issues “hold short” instructions, the pilot is expected to taxi up to, but not cross any part of the runway holding marking.

Example Instructions: “Runway 36L, taxi via Alpha, hold short of Runway 27.”

Note: If pilots are expected to hold short of a runway approach/departure hold area (e.g., 22-APPCH/22-DEP) or ILS holding position, ATC will issue instructions.

Explicit Runway Crossings

ATC is required to issue specific instructions to “cross” or “hold short” of each runway, even if the runway is closed. Instructions to cross a runway are typically issued one at a time, and an aircraft must have crossed the previous runway before another runway crossing is issued. Exceptions are made for closely spaced runways.

Pilots may not enter a runway unless they have been:

Instructed to cross or taxi onto that specific runway;
Cleared to take off from that runway; or
Instructed to line up and wait on that specific runway.

Line Up and Wait

ATC uses the “line up and wait” (LUAW) instruction when a takeoff clearance cannot be issued immediately. ATC should state the reason for any delay in issuing the takeoff clearance.

Example Instructions: “Runway 27, line up and wait.”

The pilot should contact ATC if a takeoff clearance is not received within 90 seconds of getting a line-up-and-wait instruction.

Example: “[call sign] holding in position Runway 27.”

Best Practices for Line-Up-and-Wait Operations

Turn on the traffic information displays, if equipped, to increase awareness of landing traffic.
Make the aircraft more conspicuous to aircraft on final and to ATC by turning on all lights except for landing lights that highlight the aircraft’s silhouette.
At night, consider lining up slightly (approximately 3′) to the left or right of the centerline to enable a landing aircraft to visually differentiate your aircraft from the runway lights.

Do not wait on the runway at nontowered airports.

Use of Written Taxi Instructions

When the taxi instructions are complex, written instructions are desirable. Written instructions can be used to read back the instructions to ATC and to later recall any forgotten information. To help copy the instructions, pilots should develop a set of symbols and shorthand notations.

Suggested shorthand symbols:

Hold Short: A slash (/) before the hold point
Cross: (×) before the runway number
Turn: Left (←) or Right (→)

Example Instructions: “Runway 36L, taxi via Bravo, Echo, Juliet, hold short of Runway 27 at Echo.”
Example Shorthand: “36L B E J /27 E”

Airport Knowledge and Planning

Reference: AC 91-73

Pilots should give as much attention to planning the airport surface movement as is given to other phases of flight. This planning should be completed in two phases: review items and briefing items.

Review Items

Current airport NOTAMs.
The ATIS, if available, for runway and taxiway closures, construction activity, and other airport-specific risks.
The current airport diagram.
The location of hot spots and other potential areas for a runway incursion.
Published textual descriptions of standard taxi routes, if published, to provide an overall “big picture” of the airport.

Briefing Items

The expected taxi route, to include the locations of hold short lines and runways to cross.
Critical locations on the taxi route (e.g., hot spots, complex intersections, and crossing runways).
The display the current airport diagram and the plan to track progress on the chart.
The timing and execution of aircraft checklists and communications at times that will not interfere with taxiing activity.

The importance of maintaining a sterile cockpit, but encourage occupants to speak up if a potential conflict is spotted.
Unusual procedures or techniques that are not typically used on an everyday basis.
Remind all cockpit occupants the use of cell phones and other electrical devices is discouraged.

Low Visibility Operations

References: AIM 4-3-19, AC 91-73

Low visibility conditions increase the risk of a runway incursion. Pilots should be aware that their aircraft may not be visible to the tower controller. This may prevent visual confirmation of the aircraft’s adherence to taxi instructions.

Best Practices for Low Visibility Operations

Use all available resources including the airport diagram, the heading indicator, and airport signs, markings, and lighting.
Review and brief the low visibility taxi chart, if published, and be alert if ATC states to hold short of the ILS critical area.
Perform all heads-down tasks while the aircraft is stopped.
Checklists and nonessential communication should be withheld until the airplane is stopped and the brakes are set.

Notify ATC when difficulties are encountered or at the first indication of becoming disoriented.

Cockpit Procedures for Maintaining Orientation

Reference: AC 91-73

Situational awareness is particularly important during taxi operations. Pilots should use a “continuous loop” process to monitor and update their progress and location during taxi. All visual cues including airport signs, markings, and lighting should be used together with the airport diagram to maintain the planned taxi route.

Caution: When uncertain about their location, pilots should make sure they are clear of a runway and stop the aircraft, and advise ATC. Progressive taxi instructions can be requested if necessary.

Best Practices for Maintaining Orientation

Keep track of the aircraft’s progress on the airport diagram.
Maintain a sterile cockpit and pilot workload to a minimum while the aircraft is moving.
Have a working knowledge of airport markings and signs.
Request progressive taxi instructions at unfamiliar airports.
Use all available resources including the heading indicator and all visual aids at the airport.

Constantly scan outside the cockpit for other aircraft and vehicles, especially when approaching, crossing, and while on runways.

Best Practices for Runway Incursion Avoidance

Know the location of any hot spots.
Clear both left and right before crossing a runway.
Never assume that a runway is clear just because clearance is received to taxi onto it.
When cleared to take off or cross a runway, or when exiting a runway, do so promptly.
Never stop on a runway unless instructed by ATC to do so.
Be cautious of expectation bias when copying clearances (i.e., copying what is expected instead of what is said).

Be aware that hold short lines may be located as far as 400′ from runway edge.
Exercise increased awareness when taxing in between active parallel runways.
Defer all nonessential tasks until the airplane is stopped and the brakes are set.

Night Considerations

Taxi slowly, particularly in congested areas.
Use extra caution when entering or crossing a runway.
Avoid using the strobe lights and bright, forward-facing lights around other aircraft.
When stopped, use extra vigilance to ensure the airplane does not creep forward.

Nontowered Airport Considerations

References: AC 90-66, AC 91-73

Continuously monitor and communicate on the appropriate frequency.
Scan the full length of the runway, including the final approach paths, before entering or crossing a runway.
Flight operations may occur at more than one runway at the airport.
Some aircraft operating at airports without operating control towers may not be equipped with a radio.

Aircraft may be using an instrument approach procedure (IAP) to runways other than the runway in use for takeoff and landing.

Best Practices for Runway Incursion Avoidance

Before entering the runway at any airport, scan the final approach path and runway environment.
Before entering the runway at non-towered airports:
Communicate and listen on the appropriate frequency.
Make a 360° turn to scan for traffic.
Be aware that traffic may be departing or landing on more than one runway, especially if the winds are light or variable.

Before entering the runway at towered airports, make sure you are cleared to do so and that it is safe (i.e., “trust but verify”).
Always verify that the airplane is on the correct runway by observing the runway designation marking or sign.
Verify the heading indicator matches the runway direction.

Land and Hold Short Operations

ATC may clear an aircraft to land and hold short of an intersecting runway, an intersecting taxiway, or some other designated point on a runway. LAHSO instructions should only be issued when there is a minimum ceiling of 1,000′ and 3 SM of visibility.

Pilots may accept LAHSO instructions provided the aircraft can safely land and stop within the Available Landing Distance (ALD). ALD data is published in the special notices section of the Chart Supplements and the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publications. ATC can also provide ALD data upon request.

The PIC has the final authority to accept or decline land-and-hold-short instructions. LAHSO instructions do not have to be accepted. A pilot who accepts a LAHSO instruction should land and exit the runway at the first convenient taxiway (unless directed otherwise) before reaching the hold short point. Otherwise, the pilot must stop on the runway and hold at the hold short point.

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Note: Instructors should teach LAHSO, but student pilots must understand that they are not authorized during a solo flight.

After Landing Procedures

References: AIM 4-3-14, AIM 4-3-20

Maintain track over the runway centerline with ailerons and heading with the rudder pedals.
Gradually slow the airplane to the normal taxi speed with normal brake pressure.
Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, exit the runway at the first available taxiway. Do not turn until reaching a normal taxi speed.
Ensure that the entire aircraft, including the tail section, has crossed over the respective landing runway’s hold short line.

Accomplish the appropriate after-landing checklist after the airplane is brought to a complete stop.
After being advised by the tower, change to ground control frequency to obtain taxi instructions.

Note: If the ground control frequency is in the 121 MHz bandwidth, ATC may omit the numbers preceding the decimal point (e.g., for 121.7, “Contact ground point seven.”).

Exiting the Runway After Landing

References: AIM 4-3-20, AC 91-73

Runaway 1960

Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, pilots must:

Exit the runway without delay at the first available taxiway or on a taxiway.
Clear the hold position marking associated with the landing runway, even if that requires the aircraft to protrude into or cross another taxiway or ramp area.

Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, pilots cannot:

Cross a subsequent taxiway or runway after clearing the runway.
Exit the landing runway onto another runway.
Stop or reverse course on the runway.

Airport Specific Training

How to obtain current airport NOTAMs
How to get the ATIS (simulate if not applicable)
How to request, copy, and readback a taxi clearance (simulate if not applicable)
The identification, meaning, and importance of airport signs, marking, and lighting

Local Area Review

Local airports with identifiable hot spots

Scenario 1 – Crossing Runways

You are on an approach to land at an unfamiliar airport. A tower is in operation and is very busy controlling aircraft operations on the two parallel runways. Once you have landed, you will need to cross the parallel runway as you taxi to the parking location.

What are you expected to do after landing if ATC is unable to issue you any instructions? What resources are available to you in the flight planning phase to mitigate the chances of a runway incursion upon arrival at an airport like this?

Scenario 2 – Occupied Runway

Runaway 1961

Just as your wheels touch the pavement, another airplane taxis across the runway directly in front of you. Would you go around or veer to the side of the conflicting traffic?

YouTube Video:

A Boeing 757 makes a wrong turn onto an active runway and narrowly misses a departing Boeing 727:

Aircraft: United Airlines Flight 1448 and and FedEx Flight 1662
Location: Providence, RI
Date: December 6, 1999

Runaway 1989

Two Boeing 747s collide on a runway in dense fog:

Aircraft: KLM Flight 4805 and Pan Am Flight 1738
Location: Tenerife, Canary Islands
Date: March 27, 1977

Sample Presentation by MyCFIBook.com
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